| Summary |
The purpose of this study is to examine Henry Morgenthau's efforts to protect Americans and their interests in the Ottoman Empire during 1914 and 1915, to analyze the problems he encountered, and to evaluate his achievements. Although Morgenthau had no experience in diplomacy, he successfully endeavored to protect American interests at a time when their continued existence appeared doubtful. Prior to World War I American-Turkish relations were governed by the "capitulations" which, in effect, granted the United States extra-territorial rights. Under them, American citizens and their institutions were relatively free from Ottoman regulations. In 1914 the Ottoman government, taking advantage of the disunity of the European powers arising from World War I, abrogated the capitulations. With their removal, Americans and their institutions were left at the mercy of the Turks. Morgenthau's efforts in behalf of the American interests were greatly aided by his close friendly association with the Turkish leaders. Arriving in Constantinople at a time when the future of the Ottoman Empire looked bleak, he assiduously attempted to appear as a true friend of the empire. While the other ambassadors made no secret of their countries ambitions in the Near East, Morgenthau professed America's noninvolvement in that part of the world and publicly sympathized with the Turks, He genuinely attempted to create American loans for the needy Ottoman government and, when those efforts failed, proved willing to allow the Turks to use rumors of a possible American loan to gain better arrangements with French financiers. Because of these actions, the Turkish leaders asked Morgenthau to make a social-economic study of the empire in the hopes of interesting future American investments. Thus, Ambassador Morgenthau fortunately was able tc create a feeling of goodwill between himself and the Turkish leaders prior to the abrogation of the capitulations. The ambassador grew into his responsibilities. When he arrived in Constantinople in November 1913 he idealistically believed the "Young Turk" regime was progressive. He was amazed to find how openly the other ambassadors discussed their countries ambitions. The na̐ve diplomat merely believed that to create better relations it was only necessary to contrast America's traditional isolationist Near East policy to the policies of the European powers. Therefore, when all foreign businesses in Smyrna, including the American, were boycotted by the Turks in June 1914, it came as a shock to Morgenthau. Because of the boycott's severity and the persecution of the city's Greek minority, his sympathy for the Ottoman government hardened into contempt. Yet Morgenthau did not allow his disillusionment to affect his relationship with the Ottoman government. When the American citizens at Smyrna requested an American warship, Morgenthau refused. After the abrogation of the capitulations he continually counseled the American citizens and consular agents to cooperate and work closely with the local Turkish officials. When the Beirut consul threatened to use armed American sailors to protect American property, Morgenthau advised the naval commanders that they were not to receive their orders from the consulates. The ambassador did not believe in "gunboat diplomacy" and pointed out to Americans residing in the empire that until they wished to be evacuated, they would have to depend upon Ottoman protection. In November 1914 the Ottoman Empire entered World War I. Soon afterwards, new regulations were enacted which placed all foreign schools and institutions under direct Ottoman control. These new rules not only attempted to regulate the extensive American philanthropic interests in the empire but, through higher tax requirements, appeared as a direct threat to the institutions' continued existence. Throughout 1915 Ambassador Morgenthau appealed to the Turkish leaders for moderations to the regulations and delays to their enforcement. Because of his personal relations and influence with the Turkish leaders, Morgenthau was finally able to gain changes in the regulations which enabled the American institutions to continue their operations. While Morgenthau was expected to protect American interests, he surprisingly found the State Department his greatest hindrance. When the Ottoman government abrogated the capitulations the State Department refused to recognize the legality of the action. Throughout Morgenthau's mission the State Department refused to alter its position. Thus, in his efforts to protect American interests and achieve moderation to the Ottoman regulations, he was left with little bargaining power. That the American philanthropic interests survived must be credited more to Henry Morgenthau's personal efforts than to any other factor. |
